ILPC 2026

 Feminism and the women’s movement have often been criticized for having a white, middle-class bias with the resulting neglect of poor women. The goal of inclusiveness for all different women within a feminist framework is an ongoing struggle, with the definition of feminism controversial and continually evolving. This paper considers feminism as one dimension in the context of larger societal and global issues and discusses what has been accomplished and why a feminist perspective can be helpful for understanding the progress and obstacles in the work experiences of poor women, particularly those with children, in the United States. Viewed from an historical, theoretical and policy perspective on feminism and the women’s movement in the United States, feminism provides a unique lens through which low-income women’s issues can be understood.

            The paper discusses the three historical waves of feminism that illustrate issues relevant to women within specific economic and political events in the United States. Thus, feminist issues in the Progressive Era, the New Deal, the post-WW II period, Civil Rights and the War on Poverty and the New Economy (beginning in the 1980s) are reviewed, specifically related to the work experiences of low-income mothers. In the first wave of feminism, during the Progressive Era, issues of voting rights, immigration and assimilation, urbanization and industrialization were major concerns. A review of the Settlement House Movement and struggles for worker rights provide important insights into this era. Some white women did work outside the home and some were activists, although African-American women, who were generally excluded from feminist discourse, had always worked outside the home, with little, if any, protection. In the post- WWII era, after women had worked outside the home as part of the war effort, there was a return to a traditional family structure with women staying at home and men as breadwinners. As a reaction to this, the second wave of feminism, beginning around the 1960s, developed a binary approach to gender differences and emphasized equality between men and women. But here the emphasis was mainly on individual achievements without much attention to larger societal issues. 

            In the current third wave of feminism, there is an emphasis on issues of oppression, domination, and considerations of race, class, and sexuality – as well as a focus on the need for societal and cultural change on a global level. This paper views contemporary feminism against the backdrop of its historical past and discusses new theoretical frameworks of postmodernism, deconstruction, postcolonialism, and controversial themes of multiculturalism and identity politics. It explores whether and in what ways contemporary feminism addresses issues facing low-income women. How can intersectionality – a cornerstone of third wave feminist thought – both broaden our understanding of current feminist issues and serve as a catalyst of social change for low-income women in the United States?

            From a social policy perspective, issues of worker protections in the workplace, work-home balance issues, gender pay equity issues, welfare and work, non-traditional work for women, child care, migration and reproductive health are some of the policies reviewed. Lack of paid sick days and lack of paid family leave are persistent concerns, as are women’s reproductive rights.  Precarious work and non-standard work, such as temporary, part-time, contract work, rotating shifts with low wages and an insecure work environment in a service economy are prevalent workplace practices with major impact on low-income women with children. 

            The paper suggests that there has been a great deal of activity by many women and feminist and other organizations around the work experiences of low-income women, sometimes within and often outside of traditionally defined feminist ideology. There are also pervasive societal factors that limit exposure of feminist ideas and activities in the public realm (e.g. politically, discussions of poverty are generally avoided in the U.S.). The paper concludes with some thoughts on factors that may be limiting societal change for low-income women, and ways in which their voices can be more readily heard.